Capstone Essay

Critical thinking when applied personally, professionally, and academically clearly identifies a central, organizing theme for analysis and evaluation. As a critical thinker, one serves in an encompassing capacity – as lawyer, jury, and judge. Holding court in one’s mind enables the critical thinker to present thoroughly researched evidence and facts on both sides before reaching a decision. Each theory, idea, or source of information takes the stand to determine its validity, authenticity, and usefulness. A critical thinker seeks reliable information sources that are logical, relevant, unbiased, and accurate and the thinking process must have a sound approach for evaluating the validity of facts.  Leaving no stone unturned by thorough preparation, it is important to evaluate both sides to avoid being blindsided by unexpected findings. Information requires evaluation by a fair, open-minded, and unbiased mind. Aside from one’s personal experiences, facts are usually acquired from various information sources such as people claiming to be experts, from media, and print.

“You have to learn to question everything that man has accepted as valuable, as necessary,” encouraged Indian philosopher, J. Krishnamurti. Krishnamurti’s concept is an effective approach when engaged in critical thinking and in assessing media. I note when evaluating results if they trend in one direction with a preponderance of evidence pointing one way over another? Are the information and findings plausible? Is there sufficient evidence in support? As I apply critical thinking to my evaluation process I am mindful to call upon the skill set of detective and investigator when following a lead, clue, news tip, or conducting an interview. Critical thinking helps to quickly reduce the number of leads, tips, and information we chase. It helps sift through, analyze, and find the most accurate, current, and valid information available. Through the process of interviewing and cross-referencing the many sources available, critical thinking will help uncover information and solve problems.

Such is the case with the evolving democratization of the power to self-publish on and off the Web. Today anyone with access to the Web can put up a blog or book therefore challenging the degree of validity and trustworthiness. The web offers low barriers to entry, less accountability, and more anonymity. So how are we to know which information sources to trust? Information is abundant but content within the context of understanding proves scarce. Books, newspapers, and television news shows cost money to produce, involve a substantial investment, and are held accountable to meet standards. It is imperative to recognize the sources of a media message, the beneficiary of the message, the purpose or goal, and how that might also influence production choices. One must explore how media messages reflect the identity of the creator or presenter and how the same message might translate differently if presented by someone of a different demographic. During analysis, one must stay mindful that a computer or television does not think or feel. The evolving world of advancing technology and media encourages people to become dependent on computers to perform their critical thinking rather than to engage their brains. For my professional practice I rely on the computer daily as a source of interaction and information. The value of technology is that it provides information access easily and seamlessly.  Having access to updated information offers an opportunity to analyze issues, ideas, and situations at a much higher level.  On the other hand, the availability of technology does not necessarily correlate to a clear or correct answer.  Only people have the ability to perform the critical thinking necessary to achieve their goals and decide the best course of action.

At times, it is necessary for the critical thinker to perform independent research to verify what is “known” to be true. It is necessary to clarify the context of specific terminology related to the topic. Identifying tone of language, use of passive voice, or word choice that can intentionally confuse or mislead is important.  The meaning of a word can carry a different interpretation depending on its environment. “Significant” has multiple meanings; when you use this word, be sure that readers will infer the correct meaning. For example, “significant” is synonymous with “important” or “meaningful.” However in science, “significant” usually describes the outcome of a data analysis and “insignificant” does not mean the same as “not significant”. Analyzing media content and terminology may reveal that when taken out of context the usage of a term misrepresents or is misleading about a topic or data.

The mind must provide a neutral environment where each side presents its case, and the critical thinker provides a final ruling based upon the facts to select the best course of action.  A person may believe in his ideas as being “right” regardless of the incriminating evidence to the contrary. The term “reasonable doubt”, used in a court of law, is an effective attitude to employ as a critical thinker. The mind must remain free of bias to identify any prejudice or stereotype. Otherwise, evaluation of evidence may be unfairly assessed, driven by ego, and self-serving. As learned from Michael Shermer’s Baloney Detection Kit (http://www.michaelshermer.com/2009/06/baloney-detection-kit/), it is equally important to recognize the difference between positive evidence versus negative evidence. It is not enough just to gather negative evidence against a theory but necessary to examine if personal beliefs are driving the claim. We tend to have bias in favor of confirmatory evidence and disclaim contradictory evidence that is non-confirmatory. It is essential to question one’s thinking. Such questioning includes skepticism toward self knowledge because it affects all other knowledge.

Learning to think critically about the daily media we encounter is not an entirely obvious process. The critical reasoning skills developed in dealing with print-based media do not always readily transfer to the online world. Individuals tend to be shaped by their social environment and by how they want to be perceived. Online community building web sites where like-minded people share an experience can foster biases. Few people do more than skim the surface or flip to a favorite channel, newspaper section, or web site. Instinctively, people tend to read only what interests them. This can limit a person’s basis and exposure to knowledge. “Somebody who reads only newspapers and, at best, books of contemporary authors, looks to me like an extremely near-sighted person who scorns eyeglasses,” Albert Einstein wrote. “He is completely dependent on the prejudices and fashions of his times, since he never gets to see or hear anything else.”

It is important to cut through the advertising, hype, innuendos, and speculation to ascertain what is factually correct and confirm the truth of what is published.  Nothing should be assumed or taken for granted as fact. The difficulty of evaluating media further expands into determining whether or not something is a cleverly disguised advertisement or “infomercial”. People are motivated to sell – whether an idea, a product, a message, themselves. Media is in the business of selling. Another source of evaluation is to identify content sponsorship. If you promote someone or something, they are more likely to promote you. Sponsorship and product placement devalues neutrality if it is more of a “you scratch my back – I’ll scratch yours” type of arrangement. Rather than based on authenticity, this introduces an element of biased consumerism.

Lastly, concepts or information can be effectively repackaged and profitably exploited for personal gain. For example, I find many of Richard Paul’s ideas to be a clever and subtle repackaging and expansion of the Law of Attraction first introduced in 1908 by Wallace Wattles. The Law of Attraction premise is based on the concept that what you think about you bring about. Like attracts like. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Wattles ) Paul creatively markets his critical thinking concepts as a motivational promise of belief that if you think better you will make better decisions and therefore live a better life. Along the lines of the Law of Attraction, Paul states on his web site, “You are what you think. Whatever you are doing, whatever you feel, whatever you want—all are determined by the quality of your thinking. If your thinking is unrealistic, your thinking will lead to many disappointments. There is no more important goal than that of developing your mind, as everything you do in your life is affected by your mind and how it operates. The quality of your personal relationships is affected by the quality of your thinking about those relationships. The quality of your work is affected by the quality of your thinking about your work. To take command of the thinking that controls your life, you must cultivate your intellect.” (www.criticalthinking.org) This emotionally connects with the reader and the subtle manipulation encourages a person to buy into his message through the purchase of his tools, books, and workshops.

As Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, so aptly and timelessly said, “It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.” My courtroom trial approach to critical thinking continues to serve as a platform for evaluating evidence and information throughout my ongoing research processes. My scholarly development as a doctoral student in Media Psychology needs to reflect all levels of thinking, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. As a doctoral student and practicing critical thinker, I understand that no matter how strong the evidence in support of an argument or belief can appear it is not until each side is exhaustively covered and presented that I can evaluate the information leading to an informed and open-minded verdict. Upon reaching the best solution my mind will be adjourned.

To be a more informed and balanced evaluator of information and evidence, I created a decision-making and research model that I reference as my cross-examination checklist.

My Mind’s Cross-Examination Questions: 

• Does the information source have the necessary qualifications or level of understanding to make the claim?
• Does the source have a reputation for accuracy?
• Does the source have a motive for being inaccurate or overly biased?
• Are there any reasons for questioning the honesty or integrity of the source?
• Do I need further information to make a reasonable judgment on the argument, because of omissions or other reasons?
• Is there any ambiguity, vagueness, or obscurity that hinders my full understanding of the argument?
• Is the language excessively emotional or manipulative and in context?
• Have I separated the reasoning (evidence) and relevant assumptions/facts from background information, examples, and irrelevant information?
• Have I determined which assumptions are warranted versus unwarranted?
• Can I list all the reasons or evidence for the argument and any sub-arguments?
• Have I evaluated the truth, relevance, fairness, completeness, significance, and sufficiency of the reasons (evidence) to support the conclusion?

Bias on the World Wide Web

The Birth of Bias

This blog post examines the extent of bias found in media including the web. A person’s offline bias can easily transfer onto the web so to properly understand bias it is important to first examine the underlying cause. Bias begins at the individual level. To explore where these biases come from, what they mean, and what we can do about them proves difficult. A person’s willingness to examine one’s own possible biases is an important step in understanding the roots of stereotypes and prejudice in our “connected” society. Social scientists believe children begin to acquire prejudices and stereotypes as toddlers. Many studies have shown that as early as age 3 children pick up terms of racial prejudice without really understanding their significance. Early in life, most children acquire a full set of biases adopted from family or the media. Media’s influence explains why children can adopt hidden prejudices even when family environments explicitly oppose bias. Once learned, stereotypes and prejudices resist change, even when evidence fails to support them or points to the contrary.

Coming to Our Senses – What We See + Hear Can Be Deceiving

The Photoshop Effect http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YP31r70_QNM&feature=related extends beyond pictures as media can effectively alter the appearance in its portrayal of either a person or demographic of people revealing stereotypical images or roles. We exhibit the tendency to allow media to define what is deemed an accurate standard. I attended the Transmedia, Hollywood http://www.transmedia.tft.ucla.edu/ conference where Erick Huerta, a panelist, discussed media bias. Erick an advocate and “undocumented illegal” chronicles his experiences on his personal blog: www.justarandomhero.blogspot.com. Huerta expressed his concern that the news media portrays his “group” negatively. The media’s selection of stories on “illegals” portrays them as involved with gangs, drugs, and violence. Erick shared, “the media projects who you are and what you are about and that in turn is how other people come to view you.” One-sided portrayal can define an inaccurate image of “illegals” to the outside world.

The Non-Neutrality Nature of the Net 

The Internet’s non-neutrality appears in the form of network bias, domain bias, and search engine optimization. The structure of the search tiers on the Web and infrastructure of the World Wide Web network can lead to skewed search results and discrimination in available content and applications. The Internet is a complicated model that inherently supports and generates bias. Each of the three web biases is discussed in more detail.

Understanding Network Bias

Penn State University professor, Rob Frieden, coined the term “net bias”. According to Wikipedia’s web site, “Net bias (or network bias) is the counter-principle to net neutrality, which indicates differentiation or discrimination of price and the quality of content or applications on the Internet by Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Net bias occurs when an ISP drops packets or denies access based on artificially induced conditions such as simulating congestion or blocking packets, despite the fact that ample capacity exists to switch and route traffic. Examples of net bias include tiered or specialized service, metering, bandwidth throttling, and port blocking.” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_bias) Users enjoy the high level of value when they are able to access the Internet on an unmetered and flat rate basis. Any form of prioritization on the open Internet would bring enormous disadvantages in terms of innovation, competition, and consumer choice as this allowance may influence ISPs to choose specific content/applications with respect to their own interests.

In Search of Bias – An Explanation of Domain Bias

Consideration of domain bias is necessary to evaluate search engine results. Domain bias refers to a user’s propensity to believe that a page is more relevant just because it comes from a particular domain. While some users may assume that search engines are “neutral” or value-free, critics argue that search engine technology, as well as computer technology in general, is value-laden and thus biased because of the kinds of features typically included in their design. Such design features influence how major search engines display the order of search results. Under the Telecommunications Act of 1996, “No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider.” Lack of accountability can indirectly foster the spread of bias or discrimination.

Domain bias is exemplified with the Huffington Post blog post http://www.huffingtonpost.com/keith-thomson/white-supremacist-site-ma_b_809755.html. Students performing Internet research used the search engine Google. Search results produced the martinluther.org site. MartinLutherKing.org is a spinoff of a “white nationalist” online community created by Don Black, a former Ku Klux Klan member. The MartinLutherKing.org the white supremacy backed site ranked third on Yahoo and Bing whereas TheKingCenter.org established by Coretta Scott King, King’s wife, ranked seventh on Google. This showcases the danger of domain bias if a reader’s critical thinking skills are not developed. Information provided on the martinlutherking.org site left some students with the impression that King’s federal holiday should be repealed.

Search Engine Optimization

Search Engine Optimization (SEO) is the selection and placement of keywords within web pages to aid in improving search engine rankings. Web sites try to market and influence consumers to think about and engage in what the site or company is selling. Dr. Robert Cialdini, a professor of psychology, and his book Influence provide added insight into the role of SEO as an applied psychology. I find that SEO in its simplest form supports a structure for bias based on Cialdini’s principles of authority, social proof, and affinity. He discusses how we tend to trust the opinions and advice of authority figures, more willing to take an action if we see that action before us and more likely to trust and work with people that remind us of ourselves. This predisposes us to results with which we most identify. Cialdini also introduces a few cognitive biases. The first, “Status Quo Bias” is that we tend to err on the side of inaction rather than action and go with what seems to be the “default” option or bias. “Availability Bias” refers to how we evaluate the likelihood of something happening by how easily it comes to mind, rather than by the actual probabilities involved.

A Definition of Critical Thinking

“Chefs, you may now open the contents of your mystery basket of ingredients and your time starts now! ” A chaotic mad dash follows as each chef eagerly flings open the basket to discover what lies within. In the same spirit critical thinkers need to open the mystery basket of one’s mind and delve into all the ingredients. Watching Food Network’s Chopped provides an opportunity to define and showcase critical thinking. Critical thinking is a mental process of objectively analyzing a situation by gathering information from all possible sources, and then evaluating both the tangible and intangible aspects, as well as the implications of any course of action. The value of Chopped lies not in a chef’s ability to cook or individual skill set but in his ability to harness his skills and effectively translate those into the best possible creation.

Each chef provided with an unfamiliar basket of ingredients must individually sort and integrate each element into a masterful and flavorful dish that pleases the most palettes. The winning dish is judged on creativity, presentation and taste. Efficiency and effectiveness are paramount to success in leaving chefs only thirty minutes to complete their dishes. Chefs are given three to five ingredients which aren’t usually combined and forced to imaginatively fuse them.

The same can be true in life with any given situation or problem. We, as critical thinkers, may find ourselves in a similar situation in life dealing with unfamiliar ingredients and challenged as how to best integrate each into an effectual course of action. In comparison with the process of cooking, the image of a critical thinker as chef evokes the image of fully encompassing an optimal blend and balance through integration and use of the freshest and best ingredients available.  A critical thinker chooses from a buffet of information adding the elements of clarity, accuracy, precision, and logic. Building upon these staples, an ideal solution or decision is reached when one integrates a fundamental value orientation that emphasizes intellectual humility, intellectual integrity, and fair-mindedness.

Whether cooking or thinking, it is important to remain mindful not to create a selective recipe based according to individual preference. Instead, the most tasteful and optimal solution appeals to the broadest palettes making sure no one flavor is too overwhelming or creates an imbalance. We tend to see the world from a limited viewpoint and relational within the context of our experiences. As with cooking, it is not about confirming a chef’s skill set or praising one’s thinking skills. Awareness and release from these attachments, labels, and ego enable a thinker to evolve into a masterful thinker and a cook to transform into an Iron Chef.

Critical thinking is the mental process of objectively analyzing a situation by gathering information from all possible sources, evaluating both the tangible and intangible aspects and considering the implications associated with a course of action. As chef or critical thinker, the task is to gather, analyze, and make decisions. Each ingredient of information is examined and evaluated, mindfully considered for its best use, and then periodically tasted, tested, and tweaked until ready. A cook or thinker may even find himself in search of an alternative solution or necessary ingredient to solve a dilemma.

Just as a chef’s meal is subject to review, a critical thinker must serve as his own critic – be capable and willing to evaluate his own thinking, utilize feedback, and be open to criticism. As a critical thinker, one becomes one’s own best evaluator through objective awareness, assessment, and analysis of self-thought. During Chopped each chef who avoids elimination applies this newly minted knowledge and feedback from the judging panel to improve his cooking, the presentation, and overall process during the next round. A necessary detachment from being “right” is needed for something to be as effective and collaborative as possible.

Revealed in the article Critical Thinking in Everyday Life, “It is not possible to become an excellent thinker simply because one wills it. Changing one’s habits of thought is a long-range project.” Successful development of culinary skills or critical thinking requires a gradual process of commitment and dedication to improvement. Evolving from front line to master chef, a thinker advances from a “practicing” thinker into a “master thinker” – one who is skilled and insightful when the blending of reflective reasoning, analysis, and intellectual traits becomes second nature. As in the cooking process, it is important to develop and acquire skills as one goes along. An inexperienced chef or thinker must recognize the limitations or lack of knowledge in an area even though he may have a specialty or expertise in another. A recipe is logically and analytically reviewed to judge the feasibility of each chef or thinker’s ability.

Preparation and cooking time factor in as deadlines do with decisions. Chefs and thinkers process equally vast amounts of data from a diverse array of sources and make timely decisions. Validity of information is relevant just as food expiration dates are important. Cooking and thinking exist within the standards of clarity, accuracy, and precision. For each dish an optimal cooking time and temperature correspond. Recently I noted a slogan inside a Dominos Pizza store front, “best pizza is a matter of degree” This holds true for reaching the best answer or solution.

A cookbook can be thought to parallel an intellectual journal. An intellectual journal is a recommended strategy suggested in Critical Thinking in Everyday Life. Whether a cookbook or journal, each offers a place to capture meaning and serves as an invaluable guide. A recipe proves most useful when it is precise, accurate, detailed, and contains as much relevant information as possible. An intellectual journal helps a thinker to focus on a situation, evaluate response, perform analysis, and garner constructive self- assessment.

Experimenting with a recipe may lead a skilled chef to challenge and question the established guidelines. As with thinking, there is opportunity to enhance further by adding one’s unique flavoring. Alice Waters, pioneer of California Cuisine; Masaharu Morimoto, revered for his unique style of presenting food; and Julia Child, who reinvented French cuisine in America, all did much to alter the landscape of the American restaurant scene and cooking. A willingness and openness to think without fear freed these chefs from pre-conceived notions, groupthink, and prejudices. This ability also introduces a new approach to reinvent the menu in life. Critical thinking is best applied when starting at the known with a continual inquisitive and exploratory mind-set throughout the process. As there is an art to cooking, there is an art to critical thinking.

Introduction

Monday, I stumbled across this simple question scrawled upon the sands of Carmel Beach. One word simply asking – “prom?” It made me ponder how many questions in life can be directly asked and answered with just “yes” or “no”. Each written, spoken, and interpreted word helps to tell a story. Language holds such power. Stories struggle to be heard in a world of mass media and messages. This struggle leads me to be fascinated by the impact of Media Psychology upon society in regards to choice, behavior, and motivation. As an entrepreneur, historian, and philosopher I remain fascinated by the complexities behind motivation and causality.

What motivates a person’s choice or decision to say “yes” or “no”? What motivated my decision to say “yes” to another educational opportunity to learn? My endless curiosity, a passion to continually learn and discover, and an adventurist spirit capture the essence of my character. In my experience, a person doesn’t need a backpack or passport to be an explorer but needs to carry a sense of adventure, a desire to live fully, and a yearning to achieve goals that are even bolder.

Exploring isn’t an activity as much as it’s an approach to life and I find adventure in the everyday. Living with relentless curiosity I believe in digging deeper, asking questions, and not falling subject to playing it safe. When you believe there is far more to learn and experience you become open to exploring new possibilities and strive to overcome any barriers to achieve your goal. Since childhood the creative element of being an entrepreneur appealed to me and influenced my decision to enroll in a Master of Business Administration program. Inquiry is also what fueled my desire to further my education and pursue a PhD in Media Psychology.

Professional Background

In 1995 I co-founded Wow Pages, Inc, one of northern New England’s first web development companies. Today, Wow Pages, Inc. is in its eighteenth year of business, having served hundreds of national and international clients from a variety of business sectors. Witnessing the evolution of online technology, I have a special interest in studying and researching people’s online behavior, the effects of social media, and media’s influence on motivation and buying.

In addition, my industrious entrepreneurial spirit and a life-long interest in travel and pets inspired me to develop and operate a domestic and international pet relocation business, Life Unleashed. I have driven pets across the United States and also arranged for pet relocations all around the globe. My travels across borders have bestowed upon me the privilege of exploring and gaining a thorough appreciation for the importance of one’s native language, the celebration of a different heritage, and openness for embracing the local culture.

As a direct result of my MBA education and my professional background I gained substantial exposure and experience through integrating and understanding how marketers, translators, and audiences beneficially work together to create deeper meaning and stronger partnerships. Great brand or personal stories are relayed through proper translation, effective terminology, and appropriate message delivery.

Can’t Judge a Book By Its Cover

As a lifelong entrepreneur, my plan is to further develop and niche my concept of StoryBiz as a media psychology and story design firm. My focus is to use storytelling to build brands, deliver an emotional connection, and add value through awareness. Using my degree in media psychology I hope to create compelling storytelling adding rich media to create the emotional connection between a brand and the target audience. I also desire to study how economics link to the emotional brain and impact communication strategies that generate real emotional connection with customers. I want to expand upon that knowledge. Through study and more research I want to learn how to leverage the power of story to engage the emotional brain and connect with customers.

Recently I was introduced to social entrepreneurship. The focus is on people, bringing about positive change, and making a difference in the world. Social entrepreneurship drives me to become more engaged to a humanitarian based business approach rather than just a product and profit based one. I see the opportunities that media can offer as a positive vehicle to compassionately influence society and help promote social based missions. I want to help others find their voice through effective media to generate awareness about abuse, exploitation, and oppression. Through the effective and empowering use of traditional media and new media the value and message for kindness and tolerance can spread.